Table 3. Emerging biomarkers for MoET/M1ET formation

Biomarkers, reference	Year	Patient recruitment	Clinical results	Key mechanisms
Serum MCP-1 and sST2, and monocytes and M1Mφ eDNA [17]	2023	SA1)Non-SA1)	SA>non-SA Correlation of MoETs/M1ETs: +Serum MCP-1 and sST2 –FEV1%	MoETs/M1ETs induced: ↓Tight-junction proteins in AECs2003;↑The release of cytokines from AECs2003;↑The formation of NETs from neutrophils2003;↑ILC3 polarization2003;↑The release of IL-17A, IL-22, and IFN-γ from ILCs
Serum sST2 [23]	2023	UA2) PCA2) CA2)	UA>PCA/CA Correlation: –FEV1% Association: +Serum S100A9, MPO, and IL-8	IL-33 induced: ↑The formation of NETs from neutrophils ↑The release of IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α from Mφ

SA and non-SA were defined according to the International European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society Guidelines [107].
UA, PCA, and CA were determined following the Global Initiative for Asthma guideline [12].
SA, severe asthma; AEC, airway epithelial cells; UA, uncontrolled asthma.